Hypnosis - A Brief History

This book is solid - you can grab it here (thriftbooks) or here (daddy Bezos).

The introduction lines up what they’ll be covering:

• The nature of the relationship between hypnotist and subject (along with misconceptions)
• How beliefs have changed about hypnosis over time
• Academic controversies, and the nature of hypnosis in identity and memory

They recommend these books for in-depth reading on the history of animal magnetism:

• Mesmer and Animal Magnetism (History)
• From Mesmer to Freud: Magnetic sleep and the roots of psychological healing (tracing the evolution of psychological perspectives)
• Mesmerised: Powers of the mind in Victorian Britain (historical social context)
• Mesmerism and the American Cure of Souls (religion and spirituality in relation to animal magnetism)
• The Discovery of the Unconscious (Late 19th century hypnosis in France)
• A History of Hypnotism (A big-ass history book of animal magnetism and hypnotism)

Ch 1 Trilby and Svengali

To provide context for the rest of the book - they begin by describing George du Maurier’s serial novel Trilby.

• TLDR summary: Svengali mesmerizes Trilby to remove her headaches. Svengali later takes advantage of Trilby, giving her renowned musical performance skills and amnesia for the experience.
• Trilby was your generic, naïve and impressionable damsel.
• George du Maurier was a little shit and originally portrayed Svengali as a selfish, unkempt, villainous Jewish musician.

George du Marier’s writing perpetuated and cemented these myths about hypnosis via mesmerism:

• Subjects are mentally weak and impressionable.
• Hypnotists are cunning and manipulative, often evil.
• Hypnotists have the power to split multiple “personalities” in the subject and can unlock potential, often with amnesia.
• One part of “the self” sleeps as the hypnotist awakens another.

(Here, the book talks about modern perspectives and how they don’t line up with this cultural baggage, but we’ll get to that later. If you’re already here knee deep in my notes, you should already know better.)

Ch 2 Animal Magnetism and Magnetic Sleep

Rituals to create trance states come from a wide variety of cultures through history, but hypnosis is primarily a western practice. Mesmer and animal magnetism is often cited as the primary progenitor of this ritual.

Despite popular bullshit you may have heard, Mesmer wasn’t a dumbass. Mesmer studied theology, law, medicine, and most importantly for our purposes, Newtonian physics. Their medical career started off in a conventional manner for the time - bloodletting patients and prescribing opiates. In a twisted irony, Mesmer was known for his skill playing the glass harmonica, invented by Benjamin Franklin.

Origins of Animal Magnetism

Mesmer, drawing a reasonable observation, felt the current state of medicine in the late 18th century was hot garbage. In contrast to his colleagues experimenting with electroshock therapy, he decided to experiment with treatments that “involved intimacy, rapport, and touch.” (p13)

While this sentiment had warm intentions, the status-quo of medicine was still frankly terrifying. Mesmer had a particularly treatment resistant patient, Franzl Osterline, who was living with him to receive 24/7 care. If nothing else worked, why not just give her a fluid lead solution and attach magnets to her (which he obtained from Maximillian Hell), bringing her symptoms to the surface. After a few treatments, she experienced a sensation of the fluid moving through her body, “carrying the illness away.” Contrary to what you’d expect from this wacky placebo, she was cured.

Thankfully, Mesmer didn’t come to the conclusion that the magnets had done the work. He theorized an invisible, magnet-like force created the effects, healing both physiological and “nervous” (resembling what we now see as FNDs) conditions. He began to regularly demonstrate his control of animal magnetism, creating a display of “crisis” in patients, declaring them healed upon the resolution of their convulsions.

Magnetism and Exorcism

Gassner had a similar methodology, despite being a priest. During Mass, he suffered from headaches and dizziness, and had himself exorcised, finding the exorcism to cure him. Sold on the effectiveness of exorcisms through his own experience, he decided to become an exorcist himself. When examining someone, he’d differentiate medical from supernatural disorders through a simple mechanism…

As one witness recorded it, he would declare to his patient in Latin, “If there be anything preternatural about this disease, I order in the name of Jesus that it manifest itself immediately.”

Hypnosis - A Brief History - p15

Unfortunately for him, as his successful exorcisms came into vogue, the caught the ire of the skeptics of the Enlightenment. Mesmer was asked to demonstrate to the Academy of Science in 1775, and Prince-Elector Max Joseph of Bavaria came to the conclusion that while Gassner was effective, he was actually just an animal magnetist. Mesmer granted that Gassner was possibly an even better healer than himself. Despite this, Gassner got shafted and was “sent to a provincial Catholic community where he was not allowed to practice exorcism unless the request came officially from the church.¹⁸ ” (p16)

In the meantime, Hell (the astronomer he got the magnets from) caught wind of Mesmer’s success, attempting to claim that (mineral) magnetism was the cure. (See Kev’s writeup for a bit more about that spat.) Mesmer made a hard turn in the other direction, positing this ‘magnetic’ fluid force carried electricity, light, heat, and magnetic forces, not requiring any literal magnets to change. Mesmer believed that his success would be readily accepted by his peers in science and medicine, but it only drew skepticism and criticism.

Practicing Magnetism

Mesmer had less than stellar luck in treating Maria-Theresa Paradis. Mesmer felt he was making progress on her blindness. Initially, their parents were elated that he was making progress, but they turned face and demanded her back (possibly on the suspicion of either impropriety or attempting to heal them via nostrum.) Paradis left blind, and Mesmer, dejected from his failure, left Vienna for Paris in 1778.

Mesmer found plenty of wealthy clients there, supporting his more than pleasant lifestyle. In 1779, he published his treatise on animal magnetisim. His theory, reasonably scientific for the time, centered around returning someone to “‘magnetic equilibrium.” (p19) They felt all illnesses were caused by a problem in this theoretical imbalance.

Mesmer’s fame continued to grow to the point where he couldn’t treat all of his clients. The solution? Stick them all in a magnetized bucket - more affectionately known as the baquet. Think of it as a group-crisis pool with iron rods and Mesmer playing weird music on the glass harmonica.

Magnetism Assailed

As Mesmer’s popularity continued to grow, he still wasn’t able to garner acceptance from the French scientific community. He began teaching his technique, and one of his disciples (Charles D’Eslon 1750-1786) set up his own clinic. In Mesmer’s eyes, D’Eslon was stealing away his clients. Mesmer set up the “Society of Harmony” to try to control the sole right to teach and practice animal magnetism. This grew into it’s own “chain” of schools.

In 1784, Benjamin Franklin, along with members of the Academies of Science and the Faculty of Medicine, investigated animal magnetism - not through Mesmer’s practice, but D’Eslon’s. D’Eslon was met with understandable skepticism, and while Mesmer was upset that he wasn’t approached, D’Eslon took the brunt of the criticism.

Regardless, his reputation continued to be attacked, both by the public and academics. In a death-blow, someone reported Mesmer showing up to one of Maria-Theresa Paradis’s performances, finding her still blind, and Mesmer being judged for his failure.

Mesmer ragequit, returning to Vienna in 1793, practicing quietly in private and cutting ties. He died in 1815.

Mesmerism Transformed

Marquis de Puysegur, a student of Mesmer, began practicing in 1780 on his wealthy estate. In 1784, he worked with Victor Race, curing him of congestion and fever. Instead of them experiencing a Mesmeric crisis, they went into a sleep-like state, still able to speak. Puysegur suggested they experienced “magnetic somnambulism” or “magnetic sleep.” His style of practice, creating a much more comfortable experience, caught on quickly among Mesmer’s followers.

From Animal Magnetism to Magnetic Sleep

Puysegur’s perspectives on animal magnetism were in stark contrast to how Mesmer practiced. Mesmer was showy, flamboyant, even dominant, skillfully exerting influence over the subject’s magnetic fluids. Puysegur, on the other hand, did not entirely dismiss the effectiveness of suggestion, and viewed the effectiveness of the technique as dependent on interpersonal factors (the beginnings of rapport.) Their approach also made the mesmeric crisis unnecessary (similar to how you would no longer need a violent exorcism from Gassner.)

Puysegur also observed spontaneous amnesia in Victor, which became a central expectation of his practice. People also behaved much differently when magnetized, lending to the concept of having unlocked clairvoyance, telepathy, and a change in personality.

Unlike Mesmer, Puysegur taught openly and freely, doing his best to not turn anyone away that could use assistance. Famously, he magnetized an elm tree in a public location, where people could just help themselves without direct intervention.

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Dates

• Ranges:
  • Franz Anton Mesmer - 1734-1815
  • Maximillan Hell - 1720-1792
  • Father Johann Joseph Gassner - 1727-1779
  • Marquis de Puysegur - 1751-1825
• Events:
  • Mesmer leads on Franzyl Oesterline - 1774
  • Mesmer admitted to Bavarian Academy of Science
    • Gives a demo to a Hungarian baron (Horeczy de Horka) - 1775
  • Mesmer has trouble healing Paradis, ragequits, and moves to Paris in 1778
  • Gassner kicks the bucket - 1778
  • Marquis de Puysegur starts practicing Mesmerism - 1780
  • The Academies of Science and the Faculty of Medicine, along with Benjamin Franklin, investigate animal magnetism - 1784
  • Marquis de Puysegur induces “magnetic somnambulism” - 1784
  • Mesmer ragequits and returns to Vienna after public criticism - 1793

Ch 3 Magnetism and Hypnosis

• In the early 1800s, European mesmerists were mostly split into two camps - fluidists and animists. Fluidists believed in the physical properties of the practice, where animists felt it was more psychological.
• Abbe Faria, an animist, began to do demonstrations in 1815. They were forceful - they’d confidently say “sleep,” and if it didn’t work the first time, they’d repeat it a second time with more emphasis.

Fluidism and Animism

• Alexandre Bertrand (a physician) witnessed mesmerism and began lecturing on the topic, seeing it as psychological influence, highlighting magnetic sleep as the most important part.
• Hein de Cuvillers (1755-1841) and Joseph Philippe Francoise Deleuse (1753-1835) among others worked with the Academie of Medecine, producing a report on mesmerism suggesting the possibility of painless surgery.
• This report was translated into English in 1833. It wasn’t well respected scientifically, but Victorian Britian caught on.
• The report gained popularity when published in the Lancet, a medical journal. At this time, the journal’s editor, Thomas Wakley, was welcoming to magnetism perspectives.
• “Baron” Dupotet de Sennevoy, a mesmerist whose technique was similar to guided meditation, impressed John Elliotson, a doctor and phrenologist, who let him work with patients at the University College Hospital.
• Word got out that Dupotet was practicing with the blessing of Elliotson. Elliotson began to dabble in mesmerism himself, despite criticism from the medical community.

Mesmerism at University College Hospital

• Elliotson in 1837-1838 worked with the O’Key sisters. They were admitted as epileptic, which, in a few decades would be seen as “hysterical” convulsions. His research notes were less important to the public - he would mesmerise them regularly in front of a crowd, the attendees often finding themselves having socially uncomfortable interactions with the sisters.
• Understandably, the enraged medical community published substantial criticism in the Lancet in 1838.
• Elliotson agreed to allow Wakley to investigate the sisters himself. Wakley found that it didn’t matter whether or not they were traditionally magnetized, their behavior was arbitrary.
• Elliotson, as a magnetist looking for physical explanations, was academically discredited.
• Elliotson resigned, primarily from the social pressure.

Magnetism in Parlor and Sickroom

• Harriet Martineau, an author, wrote about the comfort she received from mesmeric treatment in “Life in the sick-room, or, essays by an invalid.” It was widely criticized by the medical community.
• Ironically, medical treatment and understanding continued to suck through the mid 1800s. For example, Ada Lovelace, suffering from uterine cancer, died from bloodletting, not the cancer itself.

Mesmeric Anesthesia

• Despite resigning, Elliotson continued promoting and practicing mesmerism.
• Elliotson starts the London Mesmeric Infirmary - continuing to approach the subject from a scientific perspective.
• Elliotson begins publishing The Zoist: A Journal of Cerebral Psychology and Mesmerism and their Applications to Human Welfare from 1843-1846.
• James Esdaile, a Scottish surgeon living and practicing in India, begins using mesmerism for anesthesia, as the anesthetics of the day (chloroform) were often deadly and often not readily available.
• The Zoist publishes James Esdaile’s accounts of painless surgeries he performed.
• Medical journals generally seemed to view James Esdaile’s work favorably, with the exception of the Lancet. 😅

Neurohypnology

• James Braid, another Scottish surgeon, skeptical of mesmerism in general, went to a mesmerism demonstration on Nov 13, 1841 in Manchester, performed by Charles Lafontaine. He was initially dismissive.
• He went to another demonstration six days later, impressed that some of the participants were unable to open their eyes. He started experimenting, looking for a physiological explanation. Initially, he felt the cause was due to a response related to eye fixation.
• Braid began to publish papers in 1842, arguing the response was real, but due to mental and physical factors.
• While Braid is often credited for coining the word hypnosis, it was actually first French mesmerist Hein de Cuvillers, spamming 300 hypno-prefixed terms in their work.
• Braid writes Neurypnology; or, The rationale of nervous sleep, considered in relation with animal magnetism in 1843.
• Braid theorized three individual stages - torpor, catalepsy, and anesthenia. They highlighted they believed expectation was the root cause.
• To distance himself from current-day mysticism, he labeled his views as focusing on “hypnosis,” not mesmerism.
• Not mentioned in this book, Magic, witchcraft, animal magnetism, hypnotism and electro-biology : being a digest of the latest views of the author on these subjects is also interesting, published in 1852, with Braid as one of the authors.
• Braid passes in 1860. His perspectives gained some popularity in France with Eugene Azam, a medicine professor.

From Magnetism to Hypnosis

• Esdaile leaves India in 1851 - marking the end of an interest in Mesmerism in India.
• Mesmerists were often accused of sexual misconduct, not in small part due to their use of touch. Braid’s no-touch eye fixation techniques avoided this.
• The term hypnosis allowed individuals to explore the concept without the mystical baggage of mesmerism.
• Animists, mesmerists, and hypnotists all felt, through the 19th century, that some form of trance was the key measure of whether or not someone was in an altered state.

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Dates

• Ranges:
  • Jose-Custido de Faria / Abbe Faria - 1756-1819
  • Alexandre Bertrand (physician) - 1795-1831
  • John Elliotson - 1791 - 1868
  • Thomas Wakley (1795-1862)
  • “Baron” Dupotet de Sennevoy (1796-1881)
  • James Esdaile (1805-1855)
  • James Braid (1795-1860)
  • Charles Lafontaine (1803-1892)
  • Eugene Azam (1822-1899)
• Events:
  • Abbe Faria begins to do demonstrations in 1815
  • Bertrand starts lecturing on mesmerism in 1819
  • Academie de Medecine produces a report on the possibility of painless surgery - 1831
  • Elliotson founds the London Mesmeric Infirmary - 1849
  • Elliotson publishes the journal The Zoist (1843-1846)

Ch 4 Body and Soul

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This chapter is mostly to fill the gap of “how the hell did mesmerism make its way to the United States,” to highlight differences in how it was approached culturally, and to provide a foundation for how we see hypnosis in pop culture today. I’m a bit less interested in the spiritual roots of animal magnetism, so my notes will be a bit scant.

• Individuals began lecturing on mesmerism from 1800-1830.
• Practical Instruction in Animal Magnetism was translated 1837, making the practice available to the working class. It didn’t just talk about mesmerism, but also talked about psychic phenomena, making mesmerism somewhat synonymous with spirituality and eventually parapsychology (before parapsychology was a thing.) At this time, there was no formal practice of psychology in the US.

Mesmerism in the United States

• Early critics (in the first half of the 1800s) warned that mesmerism should only be done with the same sex to avoid any impropriety. No worries bro - when I hypnotize another dude I click my heels together three times and say “no nomo, no homo, no homo.” Completely normal.
• They also warned of the dangers of losing free will during mesmerism. (Well, that and you could destroy someone’s soul with it. I’m glad we researched that.)
• In the 1830s mesmerists were mostly middle class - in contrast to European aristocrats. Mesmerism was primarily used for recreation and spiritual development, with medical research being the least prevalent.

Phrenomagnetism and Electrobiology

• In the 1840s, phrenomagnetists combined animal magnetism with phrenology. They felt ailments could be cured by moving magnetic fluid through the brain quite literally as an organ.
• The debate was still out on whether or not suggestion or a magnetic fluid was responsible for the phenomena. Some felt spiritual experiences were real, others thought they were byproducts of imagination. Joseph Buchannan went so far as to call a specific spot on the brain the “organ of spirituality.”
• Buchannan also coined psychometry, trying to find a scientific basis for “psychic residue” left on pieces of clothing that could be used to diagnose a disorder or ailment.
• Other mesmerists at this time were engaging in pop-psychology to dissect the phenomena, but they used scientific terms to explain what they were doing. 9.9 That sounds familiar. One of those was James Stanley Grimes (1807-1903) - who tried to explain it through self-deception, a subject’s belief, and a desire to conform. (I’m mentioning this here since it echoes a few of Gorassini’s academic ideas in the future.) Grimes also created the term etherium, defining it as “the natural substance occupying space which connects the planets and the earth and which communicates light, heat, electricity, gravitation, and mental emanations to one body from another and from one mind to another.” (pp59-60) Other recreational mesmerists were still stuck on the connection with spirituality.
• The concept of electrobiology came up 😅 replacing the magnetic fluid concept with electricity.

Mesmerism and Spiritualism

• Beginning in the 1830s, mesmerism allowed people to experience semi-secular spirituality.
• Yikes! La Roy Sunderland, initially a Methodist, became a spiritualist mesmerist (believing people could communicate with the dead,) and in contrast to 19th century materialism felt spirituality and cultural expectations fueled responses in his entranced participants, and eventually died an atheist. What a brutal-ass journey.

Mesmerism and Swedenborgianism

• Swedenborgianism (aka The New Church) is (from my uneducated perspective) a flavor of Christianity that focused on ‘spiritual essence’ - where Salvation™️ happens through spiritual means rather than good behavior. 🤷 This allowed mesmerism to mix with spirituality in some Christian faiths.

New Thought and Christian Science

• TIL Christian Science just replaces science with spiritual healing. Good job. /s
• Phineas Parkhurst Quimby (1802-1866, there’s a typo in the book for his death) and Burkman were two bros that healed people through mesmerism. Quimby eventually came to believe that Bukman was healing individuals by telepathically reading their minds - more in the sense of figuring out what the subject thought was their ailment. Quimby was a single step away from placebo. Quimby began to conversationally attempt to cure people. I’ll include this quote from them - while a bit out there the language is pleasantly artful.

I sit down by a sick person, and you also sit down. I feel her trouble and the state of her mind, and find her faint and weary for the want of wisdom. I tell her what she calls this feeling that troubles her; and knowing her trouble, my words contain food that you know not of. My words are words of wisdom, and they strengthen her while, if you speak the same words, and the sound should fall on the natural ear precisely as mine, they are only empty sounds, and the sick derive no nourishment.

Hypnosis - A Brief History - pp67-68

From Body to Soul

• In the 19th century, the spotlight on mesmerism focused more on spirituality than science in the US. It was practiced by the working class, and while some individuals warned of impropriety and control, there were less implied power dynamics in comparison to practice in Europe. Somnambulists were seen as having a spiritual connection rather than being ridiculed as easily manipulated. Americans focused on the mind, in contrast to medical study (and scrutiny) overseas.

Dates

• Ranges:
  • Individuals began lecturing on mesmerism from 1800-1830.
• Events:
  • Thomas Hartshorn translates Historie Critique de Magnetisme Animal, releasing it as Practical Instruction in Animal Magnetism - 1837

Ch 5 Salpetriere and Nancy

Ch 6 Laboratory and Clinic

Ch 7 State and Trait

Ch 8 Memory and Identity

Ch 9 Present and Future